REVIEW

Harms and Pathological Changes of Ketosis in Dairy Cows

  • DU Zhenlong , 1, 2 ,
  • LUO Zhengzhong 1 ,
  • YAN Zuoting 2 ,
  • CAO Suizhong , 1, *
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  • 1 College of Veterinary medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, China
  • 2 Lanzhou Institute of Husbandry and Pharmaceutical, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou 730050, China
*professor, E-mail:

Received date: 2022-11-23

  Online published: 2023-06-08

Abstract

Ketosis is one of the common metabolic diseases in the transition period of dairy cows, with a high incidence rate. The harms of ketosis of dairy cows were mainly manifested in the loss of milk yield, the change of the proportion of fat and protein in milk, the decline of reproductive performance and the increase of the risk of other diseases. In recent years, great progress has been made in oxidative damage, systemic inflammation, liver dysfunction and insulin resistance. However, there are few reports on the pathological changes of ketosis in dairy cows. Therefore, this review summarized the harms of ketosis, the pathological changes of ketosis, and the researches on the correlation between ketosis and gastrointestinal flora function of dairy cows. It is expected to provide theoretical reference for developing new nutrition regulation strategies to improve postpartum health of dairy cows and reduce the incidence rate of ketosis.

Cite this article

DU Zhenlong , LUO Zhengzhong , YAN Zuoting , CAO Suizhong . Harms and Pathological Changes of Ketosis in Dairy Cows[J]. Chinese Journal of Animal Nutrition, 2023 , 35(6) : 3491 -3498 . DOI: 10.12418/CJAN2023.324

围产期是指奶牛从产前3周到产后3周这一重要时期,也是奶牛疾病的高发期[1]。围产期疾病包括代谢性疾病(生产瘫痪、酮病、瘤胃酸中毒等)、感染性疾病(子宫炎、乳房炎等)和生殖疾病(胎衣不下、产道拉伤、难产等)[2]。其中,酮病是围产期奶牛主要的代谢性疾病之一,临床型和亚临床型酮病的发病率分别在4%~10%、10%~50%[3]。由于妊娠后期和泌乳早期的干物质采食量降低、胎儿快速发育和早期泌乳需要,奶牛开始出现能量负平衡和脂质动员。机体脂质动员以弥补巨大的能量缺口,造成血浆中非酯化脂肪酸(non-esterified fatty acids,NEFA)浓度显著升高,超过肝脏的代谢能力时,NEFA不完全氧化产生酮体进入血液循环,导致酮乳、酮尿、酮血的出现[4]
能量负平衡和脂质动员与奶牛围产期糖和脂代谢紊乱关系密切,其脂肪组织的过度分解被认为是酮病的病理基础[5]。NEFA和β-羟丁酸(β-hydroxybutyric acid,BHBA)不仅会造成机体氧化损伤、系统性炎症、肝功能降低和胰岛素抵抗,而且会引起特定的组织或器官发生一系列的病理变化,严重时会影响奶牛的生产性能。
系统生物学是将动物机体看作一个整体,重点研究机体的代谢通路和调节网络的紊乱,这种新理论为研究奶牛围产期疾病提供了新思路,将区别于传统的“还原论”。利用组学技术检测不同层级(DNA、RNA、蛋白质、代谢组)上的生物学扰动,将有利于深入了解奶牛围产期疾病的病因和病理生物学,基于系统生物学方法研究不同体液不同层级的扰动已经综述[6],而系统生物学方法在酮病病理学研究中的应用,尤其是在酮病与胃肠道菌群功能的关联性研究的报道相对较少。因此,本文围绕酮病的危害、酮病的病理学变化、奶牛酮病与胃肠道菌群功能的关联性研究进行综述。

1 酮病的危害

酮病对奶牛生产性能和健康的影响主要表现为多胎次奶牛产奶量损失、脂蛋比改变和增加其他疾病的患病风险。研究表明,奶牛不同胎次发生酮病对305 d产奶量的影响不同,1胎次奶牛酮病组的305 d产奶量明显高于1胎次健康奶牛组,而多胎次奶牛酮病组305 d产奶量低于多胎次健康奶牛组,产奶量的差异可能与泌乳持续力的降低有关[7-8]。酮病奶牛乳汁的高乳脂率和低乳蛋白率与血浆NEFA浓度的升高密切相关,临床酮病奶牛血清高浓度的NEFA抑制乳蛋白的合成,降低乳蛋白率;上调乳脂合成与分泌相关基因的表达,提高乳脂率[9]。Guliñski等[10]研究发现,乳汁脂蛋比每增加0.2,则产后60 d每日产奶量损失1.52 kg,305 d产奶量减少352 kg。酮病被认为是奶牛围产期的一种基础性疾病,会增加其他代谢性疾病的患病风险,酮病奶牛罹患真胃移位的风险增加5倍;长期的脂质分解使机体处于低度炎症状态,导致感染性疾病发病率上升,使奶牛罹患子宫炎的风险增加1.5倍[11]
酮病会影响奶牛的繁殖性能,与健康组奶牛相比,亚临床酮病组奶牛产后首次发情天数延长10 d,产后60 d内发情次数减少0.58次,产后50 d子宫复旧不全比例增加15%,造成奶牛首配受胎率降低[12]。研究发现,酮病奶牛代谢紊乱消耗了大量的必需脂肪酸和氨基酸,造成卵母细胞、胚胎发育代谢改变,影响生殖激素的分泌,使酮病奶牛早期受胎率降低,繁殖性能下降[13]。值得注意的是,产后第1周的产奶量在酮病和繁殖功能相关性中起到关键的作用,与低产、高产非酮病奶牛相比,低产酮病奶牛的150 d受孕率分别降低9.5%、44%[14]

2 酮病的病理学变化

2.1 氧化应激

氧化应激是机体氧化与抗氧化调节失衡造成活性氧(reactive oxygen species,ROS)和活性氮(reactive nitrogen species,RNS)的大量蓄积,从而引发组织损伤和代谢紊乱的一种状态,如奶牛酮病会造成肝脏组织、脂肪组织和乳腺组织氧化应激并引起损伤和功能下降[15-17]。研究表明,脂质分解由经典和炎症途径激活,经典的途径是通过β-肾上腺素能受体或生长激素或钠尿肽受体激活,产生“第二信使”作用于蛋白激酶A(protein kinase A,PKA),激活激素敏感脂肪酶导致脂质分解加强[18]。ROS和RNS是控制脂质分解过程中氧化还原信号通路的一部分,ROS也可以作为“第二信使”调节PKA使脂质分解增加[19]。在脂质分解期间,脂肪组织会产生大量的ROS和RNS,需要大量的抗氧化物质来实现氧化还原信号调节,当抗氧化物质消耗大于产生时,就会产生氧化应激[20]。杜希良[21]研究了酮病奶牛肝脏线粒体的病理变化,结果显示肝脏线粒体关键调节因子和线粒体呼吸链复合体的mRNA表达降低、肝脏ATP的含量减少,且氧化应激指标丙二醛的含量高于正常奶牛,而抗氧化酶的活性却低于正常奶牛,并且肝脏磷酸化氨基末端蛋白激酶(phosphorylated c-Jun N-terminal kinase,p-JNK)和磷酸化p38丝裂原活化蛋白激酶(phosphorylated p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase,p-p38MAPK)的表达量显著升高,表明酮病奶牛肝脏线粒体发生功能紊乱和氧化应激,进一步导致丝裂原活化蛋白激酶-p53(mitogen-activated protein kinase-p53,MAPK-p53)/核因子E2相关因子2(nuclear factor erythroid-2-related factor 2,Nrf2)凋亡通路的过度激活,造成肝细胞凋亡。通过体外细胞试验进一步证明了NEFA可以诱导肝细胞氧化应激,并造成肝脏损伤,而添加抗氧化剂可以缓解NEFA引起的氧化应激[22]。Song等[23]的研究指出,酮病奶牛乳腺组织存在氧化应激且乳腺线粒体功能失调是产奶量降低的原因之一。研究表明,奶牛酮病期间,抑制自噬相关基因的表达使乳腺组织氧化应激加重,添加荷叶碱通过加强自噬使氧化损伤降低,表明自噬可以作为调节氧化应激的潜在靶点[16,24]。除此之外,氧化应激不仅通过激活半胱天冬蛋白酶(cysteine aspartic acid-specific protease,Caspase)信号通路引起细胞凋亡,造成乳腺上皮细胞数量减少,而且还通过激活核因子-κB(nuclear factor-κB,NF-κB)信号通路和炎性小体通路造成炎症反应[25]

2.2 系统性炎症

系统性炎症的特征是调节炎症反应和持续时间的细胞因子和脂质介质的异常产生,从而导致了机体持续性存在低度的炎症反应[26]。目前的研究集中于以下几个方面:1)促炎细胞因子和抗炎细胞因子的失衡;2)脂肪组织巨噬细胞浸润;3)炎症细胞的功能障碍;4)氧化脂质的代谢。研究发现,酮病奶牛血浆中促炎细胞因子白细胞介素-1(interleukin-1,IL-1)、白细胞介素-6(interleukin-6,IL-6)、肿瘤坏死因子-α(tumor necrosis factor-α,TNF-α)的含量均显著高于健康奶牛,而抗炎细胞因子白细胞介素-10(interleukin-10,IL-10)的含量均显著低于健康奶牛,表明酮病奶牛存在系统性炎症[27]。Shen等[28]研究证明,酮病奶牛的高浓度脂肪酸过度激活NF-κB炎症信号通路和炎性小体,导致促炎细胞因子含量升高、抗炎细胞因子含量降低,使肝脏组织产生一定程度的炎症。脂肪组织的转录组学和蛋白质组学显示,酮病组奶牛共筛选出241个差异mRNA和81个差异蛋白,差异mRNA和差异蛋白参与脂质代谢、炎症反应等过程,表明酮病奶牛脂肪分解作用加剧和炎症免疫反应功能受损[29]。奶牛脂质分解期间,脂肪组织出现巨噬细胞浸润,巨噬细胞不仅清除有毒性的脂质分解产物,而且分泌促炎细胞因子TNF-α和IL-6,趋化其他免疫细胞,造成脂肪组织炎症;值得注意的是,当大量的巨噬细胞浸润时,脂肪组织会提高脂质分解,形成一个恶性循环,造成TNF-α和IL-6含量的异常升高,造成系统性炎症[30]。此外,酮病奶牛系统性炎症与中性粒细胞的凋亡抑制、胞外诱捕网损伤密切相关[31-32]
氧化脂质是多不饱和脂肪酸经氧合代谢产生的一类脂质代谢物的统称[33]。多不饱和脂肪酸经环氧合酶、脂氧化酶、细胞色素P450环氧合酶和以ROS和RNS介导的非酶途径产生氧化脂质,氧化脂质是一种可溶性的炎症调节介质,在调节炎症启动和消退以维持免疫平衡的过程中具有重要的作用[34]。研究表明,氧化脂质的促炎和抗炎作用受多不饱和脂肪酸的类型和氧合代谢的途径与代谢反应程度的影响[35]。例如,ω-6多不饱和脂肪酸(亚油酸和花生四烯酸)产生的氧化脂质多为促炎作用,而ω-3多不饱和脂肪酸(二十碳五烯酸和二十二碳六烯酸)产生的氧化脂质具有抗炎作用[34]。Putman等[36]检测了奶牛从产前干奶时期到产后这一段时间的氧化脂质代谢谱的变化,表明氧化脂质可以作为一种生物标志物,与奶牛产后乳房炎、胎衣不下等疾病密切相关。然而,奶牛酮病期间的氧化脂质变化未见报道,酮病奶牛的系统性炎症有待进一步研究。

2.3 肝脏脂质沉积

酮病奶牛肝脏病理切片显示肝脏组织结构异常,细胞内发生脂肪变性且脂肪蓄积严重,血浆中NEFA浓度和天门冬氨酸氨基转移酶活性在产后极显著升高,表明肝脏存在脂质蓄积[37]。而肝脏脂质蓄积与血浆中NEFA浓度的升高密切相关。肝脏吸收的NEFA有4种去向:1)在线粒体中完全氧化产生ATP;2)在细胞质中不完全氧化产生酮体;3)与磷脂和胆固醇等物质合成极低密度脂蛋白运往外周组织;4)在相关酶的催化作用下生成甘油三酯[38]。酮病奶牛脂质合成相关基因固醇调节元件结合蛋白-1C(sterol regulatory element-binding protein-1C,SREBP-1C)、脂肪酸合成酶(fatty acid synthase,FASN)、乙酰辅酶A羧化酶1(acetyl CoA carbosylase 1,ACC1)、二脂酰甘油酰基转移酶1(diacylgycerol acyhransferase 1,DGAT1)和二脂酰甘油酰基转移酶2(diacylglycerol acyltransferase 2,DGAT2)表达量显著高于健康奶牛,而脂肪酸氧化关键基因肉毒碱棕榈酰基转移酶1A(carnitine palmitoyltransferase 1A,CPT1A)与极低密度脂蛋白(very low density lipoprotein,VLDL)合成重要组成蛋白载脂蛋白B100(apolipoprotein B100,ApoB100)和微粒体甘油三酯转运蛋白(microsomal triglyceride transporter,MTP)的表达量显著低于健康奶牛,说明肝脏存在脂质蓄积且VLDL代谢出现障碍[39]。体外试验进一步证明,高浓度的NEFA通过抑制过氧化物酶体增殖物激活受体-γ共激活因子的表达,引起肝脂代谢酶基因表达紊乱,进而导致肝细胞脂质蓄积[40]

2.4 胰岛素抵抗

胰岛素是调节奶牛糖和脂代谢的关键激素之一,具有调节组织或器官摄取血糖、促进脂肪合成、提高外周组织对酮体的利用率的作用[41]。胰岛素抵抗是在胰岛素正常剂量下,胰岛素敏感组织或器官(如肝脏、骨骼肌、脂肪组织)的生物学作用下降,表现为胰岛素敏感性和反应性降低[42]。与单胃动物相比,反刍动物的葡萄糖主要来源于肝脏糖异生,少部分来自小肠的吸收。在奶牛能量负平衡期间,为了保证乳腺摄取大量的葡萄糖用于合成乳糖,导致外周胰岛素敏感组织和器官对葡萄糖的代谢性摄取减少,受胰岛素调控的葡萄糖转运体4的mRNA表达量也减少,造成外周组织和器官对胰岛素的敏感性和反应性降低,出现胰岛素抵抗[43]。Xu等[44]研究发现,奶牛酮病和胰岛素抵抗密切相关,可能是由于肝功能障碍和氧化应激引起奶牛胰岛素抵抗。Shen等[45]研究表明,胰岛素、脂联素和瘦素的分泌有助于奶牛恢复能量负平衡,而存在胰岛素抵抗的奶牛抑制了脂联素的产生和分泌,降低胰岛素敏感性,加剧了酮病的恶化。Deng等[46]证明了高浓度的NEFA通过激活Toll样受体4(Toll-like receptor 4,TLR4)/磷脂酰肌醇3-激酶(phosphoinositide 3-kinase,PI3K)/丝氨酸/苏氨酸激酶(serine/threonine protein kinase,AKT)信号通路降低了胰岛素敏感性。目前的研究发现胰岛素抵抗与肝功能障碍、氧化应激、炎症反应、NEFA等相互联系,涉及复杂的调通网络,相关的调节机制有待进一步研究。
综上所述,奶牛酮病期间,脂质动员使血浆中NEFA的浓度升高,通过血液循环达到外周组织,引起肝脏组织氧化应激、系统性炎症和脂质沉积;引起脂肪组织氧化应激、系统性炎症;引起乳腺组织氧化应激。系统生物学认为“总和大于部分”,生物体整体调控各个部分及各部分之间相互作用,孤立地研究各个部分无法解释机体的整体功能[47]。基于系统生物学理论解释围产期奶牛酮病,使用组学技术挖掘奶牛酮病与瘤胃、肠道的相互关系,有可能补充酮病的发病机制(图1)。
图1 奶牛酮病的病理学变化

图片使用BioRender在线网站绘制(https://biorender.com/)。A为胰岛素抵抗,B为系统性炎症,C为肝功能障碍,D为酮病与肠道的关系,E为酮病与瘤胃的关系。VFA:挥发性脂肪酸;GLUT1:葡萄糖转运体1;GLUT4:葡萄糖转运体4;NEFA:非酯化脂肪酸;ROS:活性氧;RNS:活性氮;NF-κB:核因子-κB;TLR4:Toll样受体4;STAT-1:信号转导和转录激活因子-1;TNF-α:肿瘤坏死因子-α;IL-6:白细胞介素-6;IL-12:白细胞介素-12;IL-1β:白细胞介素-1β;BHBA:β-羟丁酸;AcAc:乙酰乙酸;Ac:丙酮;VLDL:极低密度脂蛋白;TG:甘油三酯;CPT1A:肉毒碱棕榈酰基转移酶1A;ApoB100:载脂蛋白B100。

Fig.1 Pathological changes of ketosis in dairy cows

The image is drawn using the BioRender online website (https://biorender.com/). A is insulin resistance, B is systemic inflammation, C is liver dysfunction, D is the relationship between ketosis and the intestinal tract, and E is the relationship between ketosis and the rumen. VFA: volatile fatty acid; GLUT1: glucose transporter 1; GLUT4: glucose transporter 4; NEFA: non-esterified fatty acids; ROS: reactive oxygen species; RNS: reactive nitrogen species; NF-κB: nuclear factor-κB; TLR4: Toll-like receptor 4; STAT-1: signal transduction and activation of transcription-1; TNF-α: tumor necrosis factor-α; IL-6: interleukin-6; IL-12: interleukin-12; IL-1β: interleukin-1β; BHBA: β-hydroxybutyric acid; AcAc: acetoacetic acid; Ac: acetone; VLDL: very low density lipoprotein; TG: triglyceride; CPT1A: carnitine palmitoyltransferase 1A; ApoB100: apolipoprotein B100.

3 奶牛酮病与胃肠道菌群功能的关联性研究

奶牛作为草食动物依靠瘤胃微生物来分解植物纤维,为宿主提供能量物质和必需氨基酸及微量元素[48]。研究证实,奶牛瘤胃和肠道的微生物可以为宿主提供高达70%的能量和90%的蛋白质需求,在饲料效率等方面具有重要的作用[49-50]。瘤胃微生物在宿主能量代谢过程中具有重要的作用[51]。研究发现,奶牛酮病期间,瘤胃液中挥发性脂肪酸和葡萄糖的含量明显降低,乳酸含量明显升高;产丙酸的微生物[埃氏巨球型菌(Megasphaera elsdenii)、反刍兽新月形单胞菌(Selenomonas ruminantium)]的丰度明显降低,产乳酸的微生物[乳杆菌属(Lactobacillus)]的丰度明显升高[52]。Xiang等[53]研究发现,酮病奶牛伴随着瘤胃微生物组成的改变,应用丙二醇可以改变瘤胃微生物的组成,促进奶牛能量负平衡的恢复。瘤胃液代谢组学显示,与健康奶牛相比,酮病奶牛瘤胃液中丁酸、戊酸、蔗糖、麦芽糖和BHBA的含量明显升高,乙酸盐、丙酸盐和葡萄糖的含量明显降低[54]。Pechová等[55]研究表明,瘤胃功能失调可能是奶牛酮病的重要风险因素。综上所述,基于微生物组和代谢组的结果显示,奶牛瘤胃的功能变化可能与酮病密切相关。
肠道作为营养物质吸收的主要部位,与维生素、脂质的吸收密切相关。与单胃动物不同,反刍动物的胃液是持续分泌的,导致反刍动物小肠的pH在3~6,降低了胰脂肪酶的活性;因此,反刍动物的脂质吸收机制与单胃动物不同,反刍动物胰脂肪酶的重要性远不及胆盐[56]。胆盐是胆汁酸与甘氨酸、牛磺酸结合形成的化合物,主要参与脂质的消化与吸收。Jung等[57]研究证明,补饲胆汁酸可以调节肉羊尾脂沉积和脂质代谢。Luo等[58]通过多组学技术联合分析发现,真胃左方变位且继发酮病的奶牛血浆和粪便中的牛磺胆酸含量明显改变。在2型糖尿病的研究中,胆汁酸通过受体依赖性和非依赖性途径调节糖、脂和能量代谢,代谢途径的失调和2型糖尿病的发展密切相关[59]。然而,胆汁酸在酮病的发病机制中的作用有待进一步研究。

4 小结与展望

酮病的危害主要表现为多胎次奶牛产奶量损失、脂蛋比改变、繁殖功能障碍和增加其他疾病的患病风险。基于系统生物学方法解释奶牛酮病的病理学变化:奶牛围产期出现的能量负平衡阶段,降低外周器官的胰岛素敏感性;同时,为了弥补能量缺口,脂肪组织脂质过度分解产生大量的NEFA,会造成机体氧化应激、系统性炎症、胰岛素抵抗;产生的NEFA超过肝脏的代谢能力,会造成肝脏脂质沉积、肝细胞损伤,进一步加剧了氧化应激和系统性炎症。除此之外,胃肠道的健康可能与奶牛酮病密切相关。因此,未来的研究中,胃肠道微生物和代谢物、胆汁酸对奶牛酮病的影响等方面是重点突破方向。
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