REVIEW

Research Progress of Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor on Regulating Intestinal Immune Function

  • QUAN Shuli ,
  • HUANG Jingxi ,
  • CHEN Guiqin ,
  • YANG Ying , *
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  • College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
*associate professor, E-mail:

Received date: 2023-04-04

  Online published: 2023-10-12

Abstract

Aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) is a ligand-activated transcription factor mainly activated by environmental pollutants, diets, microorganisms and metabolites. Studies have shown that AhR is expressed in various immune cells and plays an important role in maintaining intestinal immunity and homeostasis by regulating the differentiation and function of intestinal epithelial lymphocytes, innate lymphoid cells, helper T 17/regulatory T cells and macrophages. This review discusses the classical and non-classical pathways of AhR, common ligands and their regulatory effects on intestinal immunity, providing a theoretical basis for using AhR signaling pathway to regulate intestinal health of livestock and poultry and the development of new immunotherapeutic approaches.

Cite this article

QUAN Shuli , HUANG Jingxi , CHEN Guiqin , YANG Ying . Research Progress of Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor on Regulating Intestinal Immune Function[J]. Chinese Journal of Animal Nutrition, 2023 , 35(10) : 6220 -6226 . DOI: 10.12418/CJAN2023.571

芳香烃受体(aryl hydrocarbon receptor,AhR)是一种配体依赖的胞内受体蛋白,存在于脊椎动物的多种组织细胞中,包括肠道、肝脏、脾脏、淋巴结等。AhR最初发现是一种能够与二 英结合的受体,主要参与环境污染物二 英及其类似物的解毒和代谢。近年来研究发现,AhR能够与来自饮食、肠道微生物组和宿主代谢产物的多种配体结合,启动下游靶基因的转录,调节机体免疫功能和组织稳态。AhR广泛表达于肠道免疫细胞中,包括巨噬细胞、树突状细胞、T细胞和B细胞等[1]。内外源性配体通过激活肠道AhR调节免疫细胞的分化和功能,在先天性免疫和获得性免疫中发挥重要作用,从而维持肠道免疫稳态[2-3]。本文综述了配体激活AhR信号通路调节免疫细胞分化和功能的作用机制,为选择适宜的AhR配体用于调节畜禽肠道健康和开发新的免疫治疗方法提供参考。

1 AhR的结构

AhR是一种配体激活的转录因子,属于碱性螺旋-环-螺旋(basic helix-loop-helix,bHLH)家族PAS(Per-ARNT-Sim)亚家族[4],广泛表达于全身不同类型细胞中。AhR蛋白的功能结构域从N端到C端分别为bHLH结构域、PAS结构域和富含谷氨酸结构域。bHLH结构域可以辅助AhR结合到靶基因的启动子区域和蛋白质二聚化。PAS结构域包括PAS-A和PAS-B 2部分,其中PAS-A区与AhR核转运蛋白(AhR nuclear translocator,ARNT)结合,PAS-B区与配体结合形成复合物[4]。富含谷氨酸的结构域具有募集和转录激活及保护相关辅酶因子的作用[5]

2 AhR的信号通路

2.1 经典通路

在未激活状态,AhR与热休克蛋白90(heat shock protein 90,HSP90)、AhR相互作用蛋白(AhR-interacting protein,AIP)和辅助伴侣蛋白23(co-chaperone protein 23,p23)共同构成蛋白复合物存在于细胞质中。HSP90分子结合于AhR的PAS和bHLH结构域,分别参与AhR与配体和DNA的结合[6]。AhR与配体结合后,AIP从复合物中释放,AhR复合物构象发生变化,bHLH结构域的核定位信号和邻近的核转运信号暴露,随后AhR与核输入蛋白β结合穿梭至细胞核[7]。AhR进入细胞核后,与ARNT结合形成二聚体,并与靶基因启动子中的二 英反应元件(doxin-responsive element,DRE)结合发挥转录作用,其中DRE都包含核心序列5'-TNGCGTG-3'[8]。经典的AhR信号传导途径可以调节内源代谢酶表达,包括细胞色素P450(cytochrome P450,CYP)1A1、CYP1A2、CYP1B1等,参与内外源性化合物的代谢[4]。此外,AhR信号通路还能够调节AhR抑制因子(AhR repressor,AhRR)和白细胞介素(interleukin,IL)-22[9]的表达,发挥免疫调节作用。AhR的经典信号通路受到3种方式调节:代谢酶降解配体、AhRR与AhR竞争性结合ARNT以及蛋白酶体降解AhR。配体激活的AhR能够诱导靶基因CYP1A1表达,CYP1A1可以代谢过量AhR配体,从而缩短AhR信号转导的持续时间[10];活化的AhR还可以诱导AhRR表达,AhRR通过与AhR-配体复合物竞争性结合ARNT,抑制配体诱导AhR下游靶基因的转录激活[11];当活化的AhR从细胞核转运出细胞质后,泛素/蛋白酶体系统能够迅速降解AhR,以调控细胞质中AhR水平[12]

2.2 非经典通路

AhR信号通路与其他信号通路交叉形成AhR与其配体作用的非经典通路,其中部分靶基因转录起始位点不包含DRE。例如,AhR可以与RelA和RelB形成复合物,并将其募集至核因子-κB(nuclear factor-kappa B,NF-κB)响应位点,从而参与调控NF-κB及其依赖的转录程序[13]。此外,AhR还能够与信号转导及转录激活因子(signal transducer and activator of transcription,STAT)1以及NF-κB结合,抑制IL-6启动子活性,进而负向调节炎症反应[14]。配体激活的AhR还能够与类固醇激素受体通路相关联。在缺乏雌激素受体(estrogen receptor,ER)配体的情况下,AhR/ARNT复合物能够与ERα和ERβ结合,形成的AhR/ER复合物募集至雌激素反应元件启动子上,诱导雌激素效应[15]。此外,作为E3泛素连接酶,AhR能够与Cullin 4B泛素连接酶形成复合物,诱导ERα泛素化和降解,调节非基因组水平的雌激素效应[16]

3 AhR的配体

AhR是一种配体依赖的转录因子,它能够与不同结构、生化特性和来源的配体结合,并且不同配体的亲和力和反应活性也不同,因此调控靶基因的通路也存在差异。

3.1 AhR的外源性配体

AhR的外源性配体分为工业合成化合物和饮食中的天然化合物。工业生产过程中产生的环境污染物是AhR的高亲和力配体,包括卤代芳烃[二 英、2,3,7,8-四氯二苯并-p-二 英(2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin,TCDD)、多氯二苯并呋喃]、多环芳烃[3-甲基胆蒽、苯并(a)芘、苯并蒽、苯并黄酮]、多氯联苯及相关化合物。其中,TCDD是目前发现的最具代表性的AhR高亲和力配体。TCDD可以通过激活AhR经典信号通路促进CYP1家族基因的表达,如CYP1A1、CYP1A2、CYP1B1等,产生环氧化物等代谢产物,对细胞DNA和蛋白质造成损伤,引起炎症和肿瘤等不良影响[17]
十字花科蔬菜(如西兰花、花椰菜、甘蓝和卷心菜)中含有大量葡糖甘蓝素,经酶促分解后可生成AhR激动剂前体吲哚-3-甲醇(indole-3-carbinol,I3C)和吲哚-3-乙腈(indole-3-acetonitrile,I3ACN)[18],在胃酸作用下生成AhR高亲和力配体,包括3,3'-二吲哚甲烷(3,3'-diindolylmethane,DIM)和吲哚并[2-b]咔唑(indole[2-b]carbazole,ICZ)[19]。研究发现,I3C及其缩合产物在治疗肠道炎性疾病中具有潜在活性,它们通过激活AhR调控T细胞的分化和功能,促进调节性T细胞(Treg细胞)生成,同时减少辅助性T细胞(Th细胞)数量,进而缓解肠道炎症反应[20]。植物提取物白藜芦醇能够通过抑制AhR与配体的结合抑制AhR的活性,逆转自身免疫性疾病患者Th17/Treg细胞失衡,对AhR介导的疾病具有治疗潜力[21]。此外,体外试验发现,黄酮类化合物染料木黄酮能够通过ERα的负向调节激活AhR及下游靶基因CYP1A1和CYP1B1的表达[22]

3.2 AhR的内源性配体

人体必需氨基酸色氨酸是内源性AhR配体前体的主要来源。在肠道中,色氨酸通过犬尿氨酸代谢途径或肠道微生物的代谢活动生成AhR配体,激活下游信号通路,参与调节机体代谢、免疫应答、肠道稳态等生物学过程。色氨酸代谢产物犬尿氨酸可促进CD4+幼稚T细胞分化为具有抗炎作用的Treg细胞,抑制免疫反应[23]。此外,色氨酸光氧化副产物6-甲酰基-5,11-二氢吲哚并[2-b]咔唑[FICZ]是AhR的高亲和力配体,可在低至pmol范围内激活AhR信号通路[24],促进CYP1家族基因的表达,而生成的CYP1A1会快速降解FICZ,形成负反馈调节,保证FICZ处于低水平[25]。此外,FICZ可诱导Th17细胞的分化和炎性细胞因子IL-17的表达,抑制Treg细胞的分化,加重小鼠自身免疫性疾病的症状[26]
除了光照外,一些微生物也能够将色氨酸代谢生成AhR配体,例如罗伊氏乳杆菌能够将色氨酸代谢为AhR激动剂吲哚-3-甲醛[27]。在小鼠中,吲哚-3-甲醛可激活AhR诱导IL-22生成,维持肠道黏膜免疫稳态[27]。此外,其他共生微生物菌群的色氨酸代谢产物也具有AhR激动剂活性,如吲哚-3-乙酸、吲哚-3-乙醛、色胺和3-甲基吲哚等[2,28]

4 AhR对肠道免疫的影响

肠道黏膜免疫系统不仅是机体抵御病原体入侵的关键防线,同时还能够调节免疫应答,维持免疫系统的平衡,促进机体健康。在肠道中,AhR广泛表达于不同类型的免疫细胞中,包括B细胞、T细胞受体(T-cell receptor,TCR)γδT细胞、上皮内淋巴细胞(intraepithelial lymphocytes,IELs)、Th17/22细胞、Treg细胞、固有淋巴细胞(innate lymphoid cells,ILCs)、巨噬细胞、树突状细胞和中性粒细胞等[29]。AhR可以调节肠道免疫细胞的发育、增殖和功能,并且调控相关细胞因子(如IL-22、IL-17A和IL-10等)产生,影响肠黏膜屏障功能和免疫应答,对于维持肠道免疫稳态具有重要意义[30-31]

4.1 AhR调节肠道上皮内淋巴细胞的功能

肠道IELs是位于肠上皮细胞之间的特异性淋巴细胞,在黏膜稳态、组织修复和屏障保护中发挥关键作用。IELs主要由表达TCRαβ和γδ的T细胞组成,AhR通过调节IELs的发育、增殖和功能维持肠道免疫系统的平衡。在缺乏AhR或其配体的情况下,肠道黏膜部位的IELs数量减少,破坏肠道微生物负荷和组成,激活免疫反应,提高肠道对病原体的敏感性[32]。通过在肠道中移植富含AhR的TCRγδT细胞能够重建AhR缺失小鼠肠道IELs,但是移植缺乏AhR的骨髓细胞不能重建肠道IELs,表明AhR对维持肠道IELs的重要性[32]。AhR激动剂FICZ能够降低葡聚糖硫酸钠(dextran sulphate sodium,DSS)诱导的结肠炎小鼠肠道中CD8αβ+和CD8+ IELs亚群数量,提高TCRγδ+ IELs亚群数量,从而抑制肠道炎症反应[33]。此外,色氨酸的吲哚衍生物也能够通过激活AhR,将上皮内CD4+T细胞分化为免疫调节性T细胞CD4+CD8αα+ IELs[34]。因此,AhR能够通过调节IELs的组成和数量,维持肠道黏膜免疫稳态。

4.2 AhR调节固有淋巴细胞的功能

肠道ILCs是一类不表达特异性抗原识别受体的淋巴细胞,主要位于肠道黏膜下层,通过调控细胞因子产生和信号通路激活来发挥免疫防御作用。在肠道免疫中,ILCs通过产生细胞因子,如IL-22、IL-5和IL-13等,调控肠道上皮屏障的完整性、肠道微生物群的平衡以及肠道炎症反应等[35-36]。研究表明,肠道中AhR的激活可以促进ILCs发育和分化,并影响ILCs功能,调节肠道免疫应答。Kit基因调节细胞的生长、存活和分化。研究发现,AhR通过与Kit基因启动子区域的DRE结合,促进Kit基因表达,从而维持ILC3数量[37]。IL-7通过激活AhR和STAT3能够上调ILC3中IL-7受体水平,提高孤儿核受体γt+(retinoid-related orphan nuclear receptors,RORγt+)ILC3比例,促进IL-22分泌,调节肠上皮干细胞DNA损伤反应,从而保护肠上皮完整性[36]。此外,AhR的激活能够抑制ILC2的功能,维持ILC3数量,保护宿主免受病原菌的侵袭[35]。然而,AhR缺陷型ILC3中Ki67的表达水平降低,抑制ILC3增殖,降低肠道IL-22+RORγt+ILCs比例,抑制IL-22分泌,提高宿主对病原菌的易感性,加重肠道炎症[38]。总之,AhR调控的转录程序对维持ILCs数量、调节肠道ILCs功能具有重要作用。

4.3 AhR调节肠道Th17/Treg细胞平衡

CD4+幼稚T细胞在机体和环境诱导下可向Th1、Th2、Th17和Treg细胞分化,其中Th17和Treg细胞能够表达AhR。AhR通路的功能障碍会导致Th17/Treg细胞失衡,加重炎症反应[39]。补充AhR配体能够通过激活AhR通路调节Th17/Treg细胞平衡,改善肠道炎症,重建肠道免疫稳态[40]
激活的AhR信号通路能够调节T细胞分化途径,其效果与AhR配体类型相关。例如,TCDD可通过激活AhR诱导Treg细胞分化,而FICZ激活AhR则可以抑制Treg细胞发育,并促进Th17细胞分化[26]。STAT蛋白是Th细胞分化的重要调节因子,AhR通过调节STAT表达控制Th17和Treg细胞分化[26]。转化生长因子-β(transforming growth factor-β,TGF-β)和IL-6诱导激活STAT1,AhR通过结合STAT1抑制Th17细胞分化,促进叉头/翼螺旋转录因子P3+(forkhead/winged helix transcriptional factor P3+,Foxp3+)Treg细胞分化[41]。在溃疡性结肠炎模型中,黄芩苷通过激活AhR调节Th17/Treg细胞平衡,降低促炎细胞因子IL-17、IL-6、肿瘤坏死因子-α(tumor necrosis factor-α,TNF-α)水平,提高抗炎细胞因子IL-10、TGF-β和IL-22水平,从而维持肠道免疫稳态[42]。多形拟杆菌(B. thetaiotaomicron)是一种与炎症性肠病相关的肠道微生物,研究发现,多形拟杆菌通过代谢色氨酸生成AhR激动剂吲哚乙酸和吲哚丙酸,促进抗炎Treg/Th2细胞分化,同时抑制促炎Th1/Th17细胞分化,从而减轻结肠炎症反应[43]

4.4 AhR调节肠道巨噬细胞极化

肠道巨噬细胞来源于骨髓单核吞噬细胞,能够协调先天性免疫和适应性免疫反应,调节Th和Treg细胞之间的平衡并维持肠道稳态。在炎症反应初期,M1型巨噬细胞被激活并分泌炎性细胞因子,如IL-6、IL-1β和TNF-α,从而诱导炎症反应发生,启动适应性免疫,清除外源物质。随后,M2巨噬细胞分泌抗炎细胞因子,如IL-4、IL-10和TGF-β,从而抑制炎症反应进一步发展,缓解组织损伤,并促进组织修复和再生[44]
AhR信号通路对M1/M2巨噬细胞极化及其诱导的免疫反应具有调节作用。当AhR缺失时,巨噬细胞表现炎症表型,M1型巨噬细胞分泌促炎细胞因子水平升高,一氧化氮(NO)生成和吞噬能力下降,而M2型巨噬细胞标志物水平降低,表明AhR在调节M1/M2巨噬细胞极化中的必要性[45]。当凋亡细胞与巨噬细胞共培养时,凋亡细胞的吞噬作用能够激活巨噬细胞中AhR,诱导AhR与IL-10和精氨酸酶-1(arginase-1,Arg-1)启动子结合,促进抗炎免疫反应并抵御凋亡细胞的吞噬作用。相反,AhR缺失或抑制会转变为IL-6、IL-12p40和TNF-α主导的促炎反应,减弱IL-10主导的抗炎反应[46]。在肠易激综合征小鼠模型中,黄酮类化合物苦参素(kurarinone,KAR)能够激活AhR抑制M1型巨噬细胞标志物IL-1βIL-12、TNF-α和诱导型一氧化氮合酶(inducible nitric oxide synthase,iNOS)表达,促进M2型巨噬细胞标志物Arg-1和IL-10等表达,从而改善小鼠的肠易激综合征。然而,AhR缺失会抑制KAR对M1/M2巨噬细胞极化的调节作用,加重肠道受损程度[47]。因此,配体激活的AhR能够诱导巨噬细胞向M2表型转化,促进抗炎反应,缓解肠道炎症。

5 小结

AhR作为一种配体依赖的转录因子,能够与来自环境、饮食、宿主代谢产物和微生物群的配体作用,参与机体代谢、免疫调节和稳态维持等生理过程。在肠道中,AhR能够影响免疫细胞的分化、增殖和功能,调节免疫应答和炎症反应,维持肠道黏膜屏障功能,对肠道免疫和稳态具有重要的调节作用。然而,AhR配体种类繁多,不同配体通过AhR信号通路参与调节肠道免疫功能的作用机制复杂多样。因此,在未来研究中,探究不同来源的AhR配体在特定的肠道疾病模型和细胞群中的作用机制对开发新的肠道疾病治疗方法具有重要意义。
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