REVIEW

Role and Mechanism of Host Defense Peptides in Immune Regulation

  • WU Wenpeng ,
  • DONG Na , *
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  • College of Animal Science and Technology, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China
*professor, E-mail:

Received date: 2024-02-06

  Online published: 2024-10-14

Abstract

Host defense peptides (HDPs) possess broad-spectrum antimicrobial and immune-regulatory activities. Initially studied primarily as direct antimicrobial agents, their regulatory functions in immune responses have gradually been recognized with further research. HDPs achieve clearance of pathogenic microorganisms and maintenance of host homeostasis by regulating both innate and adaptive immunity. Currently, HDPs, as an important class of immunomodulatory agents, have been extensively tested for their therapeutic potential in human diseases and in livestock production, but they still face many challenges. This article summarizes the functions and mechanisms of HDPs in innate and adaptive immunity, and discusses the research progress of HDPs in the context of their applications and current challenges.

Cite this article

WU Wenpeng , DONG Na . Role and Mechanism of Host Defense Peptides in Immune Regulation[J]. Chinese Journal of Animal Nutrition, 2024 , 36(10) : 6129 -6137 . DOI: 10.12418/CJAN2024.520

由于抗生素长期的滥用,造成了大量耐药菌的出现,据估计,全球每年有70万人死于常规抗生素耐药菌的感染[1]。这使得寻找高效、安全的抗生素替代物更为迫切。宿主防御肽(host defense peptides,HDPs)是一类在自然界中广泛存在的短肽,最早因其直接的抗细菌活性被称为抗菌肽(antibacterial peptides,ABPs)。之后发现其还可以对抗其他微生物(如病毒和真菌),进一步被称为抗微生物肽(antimicrobial peptide,AMPs)。随着研究的深入,发现这类短肽还是生物先天免疫的重要组成成分,在生物体中构建了抵御病原微生物侵袭的第一道防线[2]。HDPs对免疫系统具有广泛的调节活性,从中和促炎剂脂多糖(lipopolysaccharide,LPS)到对免疫细胞的化学吸引再到对免疫过程的调控,并沟通了先天免疫和适应性免疫,因此被称为HDPs,并被作为良好的抗生素替代品被广泛关注[3]
在畜牧生产中,HDPs作为一种具有生长促进功能的饲料添加剂被广泛研究。它们可以预防断奶仔猪的断奶后腹泻,并增强断奶仔猪肠道对营养物质的吸收;还可以减少肉鸡肠道中的病原体载量,提高肠道中有益菌丰度,促进肉鸡的正常生长[4-5]。目前,在畜牧生产中,饲料添加剂“腺苷七肽”和“枯草三十七肽”获得批准可以生产销售,这2种肽类通过调节动物免疫促进动物的生长[6-7]。这也表明在畜牧生产中,将HDPs开发为一种饲料添加剂具有重大潜力。在人类疾病治疗的临床应用当中,已有部分HDPs被用于临床试验,这些HDPs大部分通过外用或吸入剂的方式来治疗感染[8]。其中,Pexiganan作为治疗糖尿病引起的足溃疡的外用药膏已进行了三期临床试验[9]。类似已经开展临床试验的HDPs还有很多,如LL-37、PXL01、RDP58和hLF1-11等[9-11]。但迄今为止,还没有HDPs获批用于临床治疗。本文综述了HDPs的免疫调节功能和作用机制,旨在为进一步探究HDPs通过调控宿主免疫反应实现预防和治疗微生物感染提供参考依据。

1 HDPs的来源

HDPs是进化上的保守产物,通常由10~50个氨基酸组成,几乎存在于所有生物中,根据其来源可以简单将其分为动物源HDPs和植物源HDPs。

1.1 动物源HDPs

动物的HDPs在其自身的先天免疫中扮演着重要的角色,构建了抵御病原微生物的第一道防线。来自动物的HDPs一般是两亲性肽,含有亲水性和疏水性侧链,可以与带负电的细菌膜产生直接的相互作用,在细菌表面富集,达到抗菌的目的。对于脊椎动物而言,HDPs可以分为两大类:防御素和cathelicidin。防御素具有6个保守的半胱氨酸残基和1个β片核心,由6个残基形成3个二硫键稳定结构,并根据半胱氨酸残基的二硫键分为α-、β-和θ-防御素[12]。cathelicidin是作为前肽产生的,其中包含N端信号肽和前体结构域,当cathelicidin被分泌出后,丝氨酸蛋白酶会对其进行切割,形成成熟的HDPs[13]。无脊椎动物HDPs的分类则通常取决于半胱氨酸残基的数量、间距和连通性以及结构。其中,研究较多的主要是昆虫源的HDPs,在昆虫中HDPs合成于脂肪体和血细胞中,这对于昆虫的生存和适应性具有重要意义[14]

1.2 植物源HDPs

在植物中也分离出了多种AMPs,它们虽然没有和脊椎动物相似的特异性免疫系统,但植物的非特异免疫十分完善。目前,已经从植物的茎、叶和种子中分离出了多种AMPs。根据其结构可以分为几类,其中存在较多的是亚硫苷、防御素和snakins[15]。然而,在前期的研究中,大部分研究认为,植物源AMPs不具有同时的抗微生物和免疫调节活性[16]。随着近几年研究的深入,已经发现了部分具有调节植物免疫的HDPs,如flagellin和snakins家族[17-18]
不同来源的天然HDPs的功能见表1[19-28]
表1 不同来源的天然HDPs的功能

Table 1 Functions of HDPs from different sources

名称
Names
来源
Sources
功能
Functions
序列
Sequences
参考文献
References
人β防御素2
hBD2

Homo sapiens
抗细菌、抗真菌、抗病毒、
促进伤口愈合、调节炎症
GIGDPVTCLKSGAICHPVFCPRR-
YKQIGTCGLPGTKCCKKP
[19]
小鼠cathelicidin
相关抗菌肽
mCRAMP
小鼠
Mus musculus
抗细菌、抗真菌、抗病毒、抗癌、
维持微生物稳态、调节炎症
GLLRKGGEKIGEKLKKIGQ-
KIKNFFQKLVPQPEQ
[20]
Protegrin-1
Sus scrofa
抗细菌、抗真菌、抗癌、促进
伤口愈合、调节炎症
RGGRLCYCRRRFCVCVGR [21]
BMAP-27
Bos taurus
抗细菌、抗真菌、抗癌 GRFKRFRKKFKKLFKK-
LSPVIPLLHLG
[22]
鸡β防御素8
AvBD8

Gallus domesticus
抗细菌、激活免疫、调节炎症 DTVACRIQGNFCRAGACPPT-
FTISGQCHGGLLNCCAKIPAQ
[23]
Cathelicidin-MH 小弧斑姬蛙
Microhyla heymonsi
Vogt
抗细菌、抗真菌、调节炎症 APCKLGCKIKKVKQKIKQK-
LKAKVNAVKTVIGISEHLG
[24]
Epinecidin-1 石斑鱼
Epinephelus coioides
抗细菌、抗真菌、抗病毒、
调节炎症、促进伤口愈合
GFIFHIIKGLFHAGKMIHGLV [25]
Clavanin A 海鞘
Styela clava
抗细菌、抗真菌 VFQFLGKIIHHVGNF-
VHGFSHVF
[26]
Papiliocin 凤尾蝶
Papilio xuthus
抗细菌、抗真菌、调节炎症 RWKIFKKIEKVGRNVRDGIIK-
AGPAVAVVGQAATVVK
[27]
Snakin-1 马铃薯
Solanum
tuberosum
抗细菌、抗真菌、影响细胞分裂、
影响活性氧(ROS)水平
GSNFCDSKCKLRCSKAGLADRC-
LKYCGICCEECKCVPSGTYGNKH-
ECPCYRDKKNSKGKSKCP
[28]

1.3 合成HDPs

除了天然的HDPs外,近些年还开发出了许多人工合成的HDPs。与天然HDPs相比,合成肽通过氨基酸替换和结构优化,规避了天然HDPs存在的对消化酶的抵抗能力低、细胞毒性高等缺点,使其在实际应用中更具优势[29]。对于人工改良的HDPs,目前研究较多的是先天防御调节肽(innate defense regulator peptide,IDR)。这是一类源自天然HDPs,并针对免疫调节功能进行筛选和优化的合成阳离子肽,如IDR-1002和IDR-1018,它们保留了天然HDPs的免疫调节能力,同时避免了肽毒性,这对于HDPs的临床应用具有重要意义[30-32]。此外,基于已有的数据库,结合了遍历设计、机器学习模型和噬菌体展示技术,开发了特异性识别针对产气荚膜梭菌的HDPs[33]

2 HDPs的结构

HDPs具有典型的二级结构,即α-螺旋、β-折叠、混合结构、环状结构和线性延伸。α-螺旋的HDPs N端为亲水残基,而C端为疏水残基,形成带正电的两亲性α-螺旋结构,这种结构具有较高的稳定性,并在破坏细菌细胞膜方面发挥重要作用,但往往也伴随着较高的细胞毒性,如SA-cathelicidin可以高效的破坏细菌的生物膜,但也具有较高的细胞毒性[34-35]。β-折叠结构中肽链呈现出平行或反平行排列,相邻的β-折叠区域会聚集在一起形成片状结构。它们中大部分存在二硫键以提升肽的稳定性,二硫键较少的天然β-折叠肽易被酶分解[36]。β-折叠肽具有较好的生物相容性,可以与细菌内靶点相互作用发挥抗菌作用,如Polyphemusin Ⅰ(海洋马蹄蟹提取的AMPs)通过靶向核酸相关蛋白的作用机制,从而造成细菌死亡[37]。此外,HDPs还存在混合结构,即同时存在α-螺旋结构和β-折叠结构,它们同时存在α-螺旋肽和β-折叠肽的特点,如植物防御素——花烟草防御素1(Nicotiana alata defensin 1,NaD1)[38]。环状结构中一般存在二硫键进行连接,肽链呈环状,环肽也具有α-螺旋结构,它们与α-螺旋肽相同,也具有较强的膜破坏能力,如从青蛙皮肤分离出的Brevinins,基于膜破坏能力,具有较强的抗菌能力[39]。线性延伸型HDPs缺乏典型的二级结构,它们富含脯氨酸和甘氨酸,其活性结构由肽和膜脂质之间的氢键或范德华力形成,富含脯氨酸的肽往往进入细菌胞质发挥抗菌功能,如PrAMPs(蜜蜂AMPs)[40]

3 HDPs的免疫调节功能

动物的HDPs往往出现在最有可能发生病原微生物暴露的部位,如皮肤、口腔、眼睛、呼吸道及肠道等[41]。同时,HDPs具有直接的抵抗病原微生物入侵的能力,而这也是早期对于HDPs的研究重点。但是随着研究的深入,发现除了直接的抗微生物活性外,HDPs还通过影响免疫相关细胞,进一步参与到免疫反应中,促进病原微生物的清除,同时发现HDPs的免疫调节活性比抗菌活性更为广泛,对于病原微生物的清除更为重要[42]。HDPs可以通过增强免疫反应来预防感染,它们通过调控细胞因子分泌相关通路以及炎症反应提高宿主免疫力,并作为桥梁联系着先天免疫和适应性免疫[43]。因此,进一步探究HDPs在免疫调节方面的功能,有助于推动HDPs的应用,促进HDPs作为免疫调节药物的开发和对抗生素的替代。

3.1 调节先天免疫

HDPs对于先天免疫反应的促进作用被认为是其清除早期病原微生物感染的主要机制[44]。而HDPs对先天免疫的促进则主要集中于白细胞募集,其对于免疫细胞具有直接的趋化活性,可以直接诱导免疫细胞的聚集[45]。例如,来源于许氏平鲉的肝脏表达抗菌肽2(liver-expressed antimicrobial peptide 2,LEAP2)可以提高免疫细胞因子IL-1β、肿瘤坏死因子等基因的表达水平[46]。此外,HDPs还可以通过化学诱导中性粒细胞、巨噬细胞和肥大细胞在感染部位聚集,进而参与先天免疫反应[47]。例如,人工合成的IDR-1002可以诱导趋化因子的产生,进一步促进免疫细胞的聚集[48]。而这种增强白细胞募集和诱导趋化因子释放的能力,目前已被认为是HDPs预防感染和抵御病原微生物侵袭的主要免疫机制[49-50]。除了针对免疫细胞的募集,HDPs还会激活免疫细胞。一些HDPs可以促进中性粒细胞产生胞外陷阱,其还可以增加肥大细胞检测病原体的能力[51-52]。这也提高了HDPs对于病原微生物的清除率,促进了早期感染的清除。

3.2 调节适应性免疫

同时,HDPs还是先天免疫和适应性免疫连接的重要桥梁。HDPs可以将抗原呈递细胞[如巨噬细胞和树突状细胞(dendritic cells,DC)]募集到感染部位。HDPs可以通过增强巨噬细胞的吞噬作用,进一步促进免疫激活,实现对病原微生物的清除[44]。例如,来源于大黄鱼的LcBD2可以通过增强巨噬细胞的吞噬作用,进一步促进病原微生物的清除[53]。HDPs还可以促进未成熟DC进入感染部位,之后直接或间接的促进DC成熟,增强抗原向淋巴细胞的呈递,进一步激活淋巴细胞,从而激活感染部位的适应性免疫,实现对病原微生物的清除[44]。例如,人β防御素(human β defensin,hBD)1可以促进单核细胞向DC转化,并与LPS合作促进DC成熟,进而促进CD4+ T细胞的增殖和活化[54]。除了调控抗原呈递细胞间接影响适应性免疫外,HDPs还可以直接作用于淋巴细胞,影响淋巴细胞反应的产生和极化,直接促进适应性免疫的形成[55]。HDPs基于促进抗原呈递和对于淋巴细胞的直接激活作用,实现了对适应性免疫系统的调控,促进了病原微生物的针对性清除,增强了宿主的适应性免疫。

3.3 调节炎症

如前所述,HDPs可以通过诱导各种免疫细胞的聚集,激活免疫系统,而这也是炎症发生的重要表征。此外,HDPs可以促进这些免疫细胞释放促炎因子,造成感染部位发生炎症,激活免疫系统,促进生物体对入侵的病原微生物的清除[56]。然而,过度且不受控制的炎症反应不仅不会加强病原微生物的清除,反而会对宿主正常的组织产生严重损伤[57]。所以在炎症已经发生的情况下,HDPs还具有强效的抗炎作用,可以减轻炎症对周围组织的不良影响[58]。例如,小鼠cathelicidin的敲除会加重炎症反应;人工合成的肽IDR-1002有效缓解因过敏引起的气道炎症[31,59]。此外,HDPs还可以中和LPS,而LPS会被Toll样受体(Toll-like receptor,TLR)4识别,并通过TLR4信号通路转导激活免疫细胞产生促炎细胞因子,当LPS被中和后即可实现对炎症的抑制[60-61]。因此,简单的将HDPs描述为促炎或抗炎分子是不准确的,它们更应该被定义为生物体中的炎症平衡因子。

4 HDPs的作用机制

4.1 先天免疫调控机制

在先天免疫的过程中,HDPs作用于多种免疫相关细胞,如中性粒细胞、巨噬细胞和肥大细胞等。对中性粒细胞的调控方面,LL-37可以促进中性粒细胞形成胞外陷阱,实现对病原微生物的清除和炎症调节[62]。人工合成的IDR-1002通过Gi偶联受体、磷脂酰肌醇3-激酶(phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase,PI3K)、核因子-κB(nuclear factor-kappa B,NF-κB)和丝裂原活化蛋白激酶(mitogen activated protein kinase,MAPK)信号通路产生趋化因子,促进中性粒细胞和单核细胞在感染部位的募集[49]
对巨噬细胞的调控方面,LL-37可以与巨噬细胞中的P2X7受体结合,诱导半胱天冬酶(Caspase)-1的激活以及白细胞介素(interleukin,IL)-1β产生,实现对病原微生物的清除[63]。从肉鸡中分离出的cathelicidin-B1可增强巨噬细胞的细菌吞噬作用,并下调由于大肠杆菌感染诱导的巨噬细胞中的干扰素(interferon,IFN)-βIL-1βIL-6和IL-8基因表达,缓解炎症的发生[64]
而对于肥大细胞的调控方面,LL-37可以通过网格蛋白介导的内吞作用内化到细胞中,并与Mas相关G蛋白偶联受体(Mas-related G protein-coupled receptor,Mrgpr)X2相互作用激活肥大细胞[65]。AMP-IBP5可以增加肥大细胞中钙离子(Ca2+)的含量,并影响肥大细胞的迁移,它还可以通过MrgprX2诱导肥大细胞脱颗粒[66]
最近,关于HDPs对生物免疫系统调控方面的研究越来越多,对于HDPs对免疫相关细胞的影响也越发深入,进一步证实了HDPs对于生物先天免疫的重要性,但是在研究中关于HDPs影响免疫细胞分泌细胞因子和对免疫细胞凋亡相关的通路和机制仍不全面,还需进一步探究,为HDPs在临床中的应用提供新的证据。

4.2 适应性免疫调控机制

除了激活先天免疫之外,HDPs在适应性免疫过程中也扮演着重要的角色。HDPs通过增强吞噬细胞的吞噬作用,促进了抗原的呈递,激活了适应性免疫,其还可以影响淋巴细胞的产生和极化,进一步形成适应性免疫。如从树蛙中分离出的Zs-cathelicidin通过刺激巨噬细胞分泌趋化因子配体(chemokine ligand,CXCL)1、CXCL2和趋化因子(chemokine,CCL)2,介导吞噬细胞的募集,增强抗原呈递[67]。LL-37可以通过刺激浆细胞样树突状细胞分泌IFN-α,实现对髓系树突状细胞和效应性T细胞的激活,从而诱导适应性免疫级联反应[68]。hBD2和hBD3与CD4+ T细胞共同孵育时可以显著促进CD4+ T细胞增殖[69]。从鸡中分离出的防御素——鸡β防御素8(avian β-defensin 8,AvBD8),通过激活MAPK信号通路,并诱导促炎细胞因子IL-1βIFN-γIL-12p40和趋化因子CCL4、CXCL13和CCL20的表达,在淋巴结等结构中引导特异性免疫细胞的迁移,参与体液免疫和细胞免疫[23]。HDPs通过多样的方式参与了对于宿主适应性免疫系统的调节,实现了对病原微生物的特异性清除。但是在目前的研究中,对于HDPs对抗原呈递和T细胞和B细胞的活性和分化的影响的研究还不够深入,它们对于适应性免疫具体的调节作用和机制还需要进一步挖掘。

4.3 炎症调控机制

HDPs除了直接或间接募集免疫细胞,促进免疫细胞的分化和成熟外,还通过调控免疫细胞分泌炎症因子来达到维持机体健康的目的。例如,hBD2可以诱导促炎因子IL-12、IL-1α、IL-1β和IL-6的产生,促进了炎症反应的发生[70]。在单核细胞的分化过程中,LL-37诱导促炎介质产生,导致IL-10的表达下调,以及IL-12p40的表达上调,诱导单核细胞分化为M1型巨噬细胞,促进炎症的发生[71]。同时,部分HDPs还具有抑制炎症发生的作用。如从解淀粉芽孢杆菌中分离出的YD,通过微小RNA(miR)-155-Caspase 12-NF-κB轴抑制炎症的发生[72]。重组HDPs Temporin-1CEa通过TLR4/髓样分化因子88(myeloid differentiation factor 88,MyD88)/NF-κB通路抑制了促炎因子的表达;而HDPs的抗炎功能还可以归因于对LPS的中和活性;LPS是革兰氏阴性菌外膜的重要组成成分,其在宿主体内可以被TLR4识别,并通过抑制下游TLR4信号通路(如MAPK和NF-κB信号传导),进一步实现抗炎效果[73]。如源于青蛙的cathelicidin-MH可以中和LPS,同时通过抑制MAPK信号转导,抑制了促炎介质IL-1β、IL-6和TNF-α的产生[74]。此外,在不同的感染阶段,HDPs也可能存在不同的炎症调控活性。例如,在病原微生物存在的情况下,cathelicidin-2不存在抗炎作用,而在病原微生物被完全清除的情况下,cathelicidin-2则可以通过抑制TLR2和TLR4信号通路,实现抗炎效果[75]。而针对在非感染情况下HDPs的抗炎作用的研究也是十分重要的,在人及动物的生活过程中,非感染性炎症(如过敏、烧伤、酒精和微量元素引发的炎症)时常发生,而利用HDPs在非感染情况下的抗炎作用,实现对炎症反应的限制,对于维持人及畜禽的健康是十分重要的,这也是将HDPs开发成一种免疫调节药品的思路。
此外,需要注意的是,内源性的CHDPs对炎症的调控作用可能会被炎症条件下肽的修饰所阻碍[9]。如炎症细胞释放的肽基精氨酸脱氨酶会介导LL-37的瓜氨酸化,使LL-37与TLR信号通路互作的干扰,造成了对巨噬细胞促炎反应的抑制[76]。因此,在探究HDPs调控炎症反应时,还要注意细胞环境对于HDPs的影响。

5 小结与展望

HDPs的发现及研究具有重要意义,特别是通过其免疫调节功能,实现治疗和预防相关疾病、抗癌、促进伤口愈合等方面具有广阔的前景。HDPs在畜牧生产和人类疾病治疗等领域的应用已开展了诸多研究。但是,HDPs在应用的过程中仍存在许多挑战,诸如稳定性低、毒性大和成本高等。目前,对于在实际应用中使用HDPs有以下几种考虑:1)基于天然HDPs的结构进行优化,提高蛋白水解稳定性和盐粒子稳定性同时仅保留其免疫调节活性,达到缩短肽的长度降低成本和减少细胞毒性的目的;2)使用纳米颗粒或脂质体用于HDPs的靶向递送和缓释;3)通过一些补充剂或小分子化合物来实现内源性提高HDPs的表达水平;4)将其作为一种佐剂与传统抗生素协同作用。通过以上方法可以进一步推动免疫调节药物的开发,这对于抗生素替代品的开发具有重要意义。
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