REVIEW

Research Progress on Pathogenic Characteristics and Nutritional Regulation of Necrotizing Enteritis in Poultry

  • ZHANG Ruiqiang ,
  • LU Shuwan ,
  • SUN Yaowei ,
  • YANG Caimei , *
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  • Zhejiang Provincial Engineering Laboratory for Animal Health Inspection & Internet Technology, Key Laboratory of Applied Technology on Green-Eco-Healthy Animal Husbandry of Zhejiang Province, College of Animal Science and Technology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Zhejiang Agricultural and Forestry University, Lin’an 311300, China
*professor, E-mail:

Received date: 2024-09-04

  Online published: 2025-03-13

Abstract

Necrotic enteritis (NE) is a digestive tract disease mainly caused by Clostridium perfringens. Because of its high morbidity and mortality, it poses a serious threat to poultry health and breeding industry. Veterinary antibiotics can effectively control the occurrence of NE in poultry. However, due to the restriction of antibiotics in recent years, the incidence of NE in the world has shown an overall upward trend. The prevention and treatment of NE in poultry still has a long way to go. In order to deepen the understanding of NE, this article reviewed the etiology, epidemiology and clinical characteristics of NE based on its characteristics. At the same time, the nutritional control measures of NE and disease resistance mechanism were summarized, which provides a theoretical basis for in-depth research on the pathogenesis of NE and its nutritional regulation in the future.

Cite this article

ZHANG Ruiqiang , LU Shuwan , SUN Yaowei , YANG Caimei . Research Progress on Pathogenic Characteristics and Nutritional Regulation of Necrotizing Enteritis in Poultry[J]. Chinese Journal of Animal Nutrition, 2025 , 37(3) : 1401 -1409 . DOI: 10.12418/CJAN2025.120

家禽坏死性肠炎(necrotic enteritis,NE)作为现代禽类集约化饲养过程中最为突出的肠道疾病类型之一,其主要是由世界上最常见的食源性病菌之一的产气荚膜梭菌(Clostridium perfringens)引起。该菌广泛存在于人类及动物的消化道中,在肠道内生成大量毒素及致病因子,造成肠道功能损伤[1]。NE具有发病率高和传染速度快等特点,每年给家禽养殖产业造成了巨大的经济损失。据不完全统计,该病每年造成的全球家禽业损失达60亿美元以上[2]。此外,伴随着世界范围内针对抗生素用作促生长剂的立法限制,NE的发病率在全球范围内呈现上升趋势,家禽的健康生产受到的威胁亦随之加重[3]
研究指出,有机酸、益生菌、益生元、酶制剂、植物提取物和噬菌体等饲料添加剂在预防和调控家禽NE发生过程中可发挥重要作用,明确NE的发病特征及其发病机制可为NE的营养调控研究和有效防控产品的开发提供支持。因此,本文通过综述NE的病原学、流行病学和临床症状等特征,对目前NE的营养防治研究及其作用机制进行总结,以望为NE的发病机制和营养调控研究提供参考。

1 NE的发病特征

1.1 病原学特征

产气荚膜梭菌(又名魏氏梭菌)是一种自然存在于动物胃肠道的孢子型革兰氏阳性细菌,大而钝圆的芽孢位于菌体中央或近端使菌体膨胀[4]。该菌是NE的主要病原,可在动物创伤组织中形成荚膜,在一定条件下亦可引起多种其他严重疾病。根据菌株对不同毒素的产生能力,产气荚膜梭菌被分为A、B、C、D、E、F和G等共7个血清型。其中A型产气荚膜梭菌以表达α毒素(CPA)为主,且α毒素在A型产气荚膜梭菌中的表达远高于另外几种血清型产气荚膜梭菌。B型产气荚膜梭菌可产生β毒素(CPB)、ε毒素(EXT)和α毒素3种毒素,C型产气荚膜梭菌可产生β毒素和α毒素,D型产气荚膜梭菌可产生ε毒素和α毒素,E型产气荚膜梭菌可产生ι毒素(ITX)和α毒素,F型产气荚膜梭菌可产生肠毒素(CPE)和α毒素,G型产气荚膜梭菌可产生坏死性肠炎B样毒素(NetB)和α毒素[5]。有研究显示,G型产气荚膜梭菌是家禽NE的主要致病菌,NetB毒素是NE重要致病毒素[6]

1.2 流行病学特征

在众多禽类中,仅鸡可自然感染NE,且多发于2~4周龄,放养鸡发病率高于笼养鸡。NE主要通过消化道呈水平传播,病鸡和带菌鸡污染的饲料、垫料、尘埃或变质动植物蛋白质等都是重要的传染源[7]。由于产气荚膜梭菌属于条件致病菌,当鸡群饲养环境较差、应激、肠道功能减弱甚至紊乱、肠黏膜遭到病原体侵入后损伤时,均可能诱发NE的发生。NE的流行特点主要是能在鸡群中迅速传播、淘汰鸡和病死鸡持续出现、病情反复在同一个区域内流行且可延续到鸡群上市。此外,研究表明,球虫感染会引起畜禽肠道黏膜损伤,为产气荚膜梭菌在肠道内的定植和增殖提供了有利条件,当两者同时感染时,其死亡率要高于单独感染[5]。该病一年四季均可发生,多发于温、湿度较高的4—9月份[8]

1.3 临床症状

患有NE的鸡一般会出现精神沉郁、双翅下垂和羽毛逆立等症状;病程较长的会出现瘫痪倒地、双翅拍打、翅根颤动等神经症状。NE根据临床症状常被分为临床型和亚临床型[9]。临床型病鸡肠道黏膜解剖可见大量弥漫性坏死灶,亚临床型不易鉴别。临床型病鸡大多症状不明显时,突然发病,1~2 h内快速死亡,排出红色或黑褐色、煤焦油状的粪便,死亡率可达50%。亚临床型病鸡无明显症状,会引起慢性肠道黏膜损伤和机体炎症反应,进而影响其消化和吸收性能,表现为采食量减少、饲料转化率降低以及增重减缓,一般不会造成死亡或死亡率低。亚临床型NE会在鸡群中长期存在,且难以发现,不便于及时治疗,因而造成比临床型NE更严重的经济损失[10]

1.4 发病机制

NE的发病机制复杂,已知产气荚膜梭菌主要通过分泌毒素导致NE的发生[11]。由于A型至G型产气荚膜梭菌均可在细胞外分泌高水平的α毒素,长期以来α毒素一直被认为是NE发生的主要毒力因子,最近的研究发现,NetB是引发NE的主要毒素[12],但其向靶细胞的传递涉及复杂的传递系统。NetB的产生受到VirR/VirS双组分信号系统和位于产气荚膜梭菌染色体上的辅助基因调控(Agr)类群体感应系统的严格调控[13]。NetB属于β孔形成毒素(PFT)的α-溶血素家族,和其他成孔毒素一样,PFT单体分子通常利用细胞膜的流动性来降低单体和低聚体之间的分子间距离,进而在宿主细胞上形成孔隙膜,导致细胞死亡[14]。该过程从单体毒素与靶细胞膜上的受体特异性结合开始,随后单体毒素聚集并形成1个前孔结构,该前孔插入到宿主细胞膜上形成七聚体的孔洞,并以此来识别细胞膜中的无胆固醇区域,这些孔允许Na+、Cl-和Ca2+等离子进入,从而增加渗透性,该过程导致肠细胞局灶性、多灶性或聚结性坏死,严重时导致肠道的整个浅表黏膜发生凝固性坏死,由NetB阳性产气荚膜梭菌引起的坏死性病变始于肠细胞的基底膜和侧节,然后扩散到固有层[15]。此外,胶原酶、唾液酸酶和透明质酸酶等水解酶会削弱肠道的完整性,而细胞表面的产气荚膜梭菌蛋白可促进这些水解酶与受损的肠黏膜结合,导致严重NE损伤的发生[16]

2 NE的营养调控进展

当前NE的营养调控研究主要聚焦于各类抗生素替代品,包括有机酸、益生菌、益生元、酶制剂、植物提取物和噬菌体等。

2.1 有机酸

有机酸是一类在生物体内普遍存在并含有羧基(-COOH)的酸性有机化合物,包括碳水化合物、氨基酸和脂肪降解途径的中间产物[17]。有机酸可以维持家禽肠道屏障细胞的完整性,调节肠道微生物群,提高营养物质消化和吸收率,并有助于改善生长性能[18]。有机酸还可增强细胞和体液免疫能力[19]。研究证明,短链脂肪酸(SCFAs)和中链脂肪酸(MCFAs)(包括丁酸、己酸、辛酸、癸酸和月桂酸)对肉鸡NE均有良好的缓解和治疗作用[20]。饲粮中添加丁酸可通过增强肉鸡肠道的屏障功能,降低NE的感染率[21]。Onrust等[22]研究表明,戊酸可改善肉鸡肠黏膜的形态结构,降低NE的发病率。饲粮中补充中链脂肪酸可以有效阻止致病菌的生长繁殖,进而改善家禽肠道菌群的平衡,促进肠道对营养成分的消化吸收,提高机体的生长性能[20]。Kumar等[19]指出,肉鸡饲粮补充有机酸可通过改善肠屏障功能、肠道微生物群和挥发性SCFAs的产生,以减轻NE的不利影响。有证据表明,与单一有机酸相比,混合有机酸的有益效果更高,因为它们对肉鸡肠道发育、健康、营养物质消化和吸收具有协同作用[23-24]。Kumar等[24]研究表明,MCFAs或SCFAs混合饲喂时,NE肉鸡的免疫能力提高,可有效缓解NE肉鸡的肠道损伤程度。在NE肉鸡的饲粮中添加有机酸(柠檬酸和山梨酸)和植物提取物(百里酚和香兰素)的微胶囊混合物,可调控T细胞受体和核因子-κB(NF-κB)信号通路介导的细胞因子释放,进而降低死亡率和肠道病变评分[25]。另外,有研究表明,产气荚膜梭菌的α毒素可以增加小鼠肠道细胞上Toll样受体4(TLR4)mRNA的表达[26]。Ghiselli等[27]研究发现,产气荚膜梭菌感染鸡胚原代肠上皮细胞时,TLR4以及白细胞介素-6(IL-6)、白细胞介素-8(IL-8)和白细胞介素-1β(IL-1β)的表达显著增加。研究显示,IL-6表达的平衡需要NF-κB信号传导对Arid5a的调节来维持[28],提示NE发生时TLR4信号的激活可能与NF-κB/Arid5a通路介导的IL-6表达增加有关。研究指出,香豆酸可通过刺激TLR4信号激活NF-κB级联反应,控制促炎细胞因子IL-6的产生,进而抑制细胞炎症的发生[29]。综上所述,有机酸可能通过调控TLR4信号通路,抑制NE肉鸡肠道炎症的发生。亦有研究指出,补充适当水平的有机酸与植物精油的混合物可以通过抑制肉鸡TLR4/NF-κB信号通路来缓解NE肉鸡的肠道炎症[30]。有机酸在畜禽饲粮中具有广泛的应用潜力,但在实际使用中仍存在一些问题,如有机酸过量会导致畜禽的消化系统故障,甚至产生疾病;不同生理状态下,机体对有机酸的需求量和适应性可能存在差异;有机酸对其他饲料成分的营养价值可能存在负面影响或协同作用等。因此,有机酸在防治肉鸡NE的发生过程中的精准营养技术有待进一步明确。

2.2 益生菌

研究显示,益生菌具备有效抑制产气荚膜梭菌的能力,可以作为潜在的替抗产品用于预防和治疗NE[31]。已有研究结果表明,乳酸杆菌[32]、枯草芽孢杆菌[33]和凝结芽孢杆菌[34]等可通过促进肠道上皮的重建以及增加亚临床型NE肉鸡的绒毛高度、麦芽糖酶活性或免疫球蛋白含量,降低黏膜干扰素-γ(IFN-γ)和肿瘤坏死因子-α(TNF-α)含量或改善肠道病变评分,进而缓解产气荚膜梭菌诱导的肠道损伤。另外,体内和体外研究表明,产气荚膜梭菌可通过调节Toll样受体(TLR)或核苷酸结合寡聚化结构域触发肉鸡NF-κB信号通路,诱发强烈的肠道炎症反应[35-36]。这种信号转导级联会激活巨噬细胞和树突状细胞,导致幼稚T辅助性细胞(Th)分化为成熟的效应细胞Th1、Th2、Th17和调节性T细胞(Treg),这些效应细胞分别产生白细胞介素-1(IL-1)、INF-γ、白细胞介素-13(IL-13)、白细胞介素-17(IL-17)和转化生长因子-β(TGF-β)[37]。Guo等[38]研究表明,发酵乳杆菌和凝结芽孢杆菌可通过调节Th1、Th17和Treg的功能来减轻产气荚膜梭菌引起的肠道炎症,并能通过富集厚壁菌门和乳杆菌属,抑制拟杆菌门、变形菌门、毛螺菌科和粪杆菌属、埃希氏菌-志贺氏菌属,进而恢复NE肉鸡的肠道健康。此外,屎肠球菌还能通过下调产气荚膜梭菌群体感应信号通路中辅助基因调节因子AgrA、AgrB和AgrC以及与毒力因子相关的双因子系统来抑制产气荚膜梭菌的体外增殖,进而减轻产气荚膜梭菌对家禽NE发生的影响[39]。但是,益生菌在肠道发挥作用的有效活菌数控制、不同菌株的协同应用及多菌株发酵技术、菌株的靶向肠道作用和工艺制备技术仍是实现益生菌高效利用的挑战。

2.3 益生元

益生元通过增加有益细菌的数量来提高体内有益菌群的代谢活动和增殖能力,从而增强畜禽的免疫力和肠上皮细胞屏障功能的稳定性,达到提高机体健康水平的最终目的[40-41]。与抗生素相比,其优点在于无药物残留、细菌污染和耐药性等问题的存在。研究显示,低聚糖可以使双歧杆菌和乳酸杆菌等有益菌在机体肠道内获得更好的生存条件,同时阻止沙门氏菌、产气荚膜梭菌和空肠弯曲杆菌等致病菌增殖[42-44]。酵母细胞壁(YCW)富含甘露寡糖(MOS)、β-葡聚糖、α-甲基-D-甘露糖苷和D-甘露糖等[45],研究显示,YCW可通过改善肠道屏障功能缓解肉鸡NE病变[46]。研究指出,低聚木糖可改善肉鸡肠道评分,缓解NE导致的肉鸡生长性能下降[47]。IL-12可通过诱导IFN-γ的分泌增强T细胞和自然杀伤细胞来促进Th相关途径支持炎症反应,以控制细菌感染的早期阶段[48]。研究表明,在肉仔鸡饲粮中添加甘露寡糖可增加回肠乳酸杆菌群落多样性,减少产气荚膜梭菌和大肠杆菌数量[49]。在产气荚膜梭菌攻毒引起的肉鸡NE模型试验中发现,低聚甘露糖(MOS,2 g/kg)可上调回肠中TLR4、IL-12和IFN-γ的表达,表明MOS可能通过参与肉鸡肠道细胞TLR4、IL-12信号的免疫调节控制产气荚膜梭菌引起的肉鸡早期NE的发生[50]。然而,因动物之间的微生物组成存在差异,使得益生元的作用效果在不同的动物种类、饲料配方和环境条件下会有所不同,且益生元不被直接利用,其在不同年龄阶段、不同生理状态下的动物饲粮中的精准剂量仍有待进一步明确。

2.4 酶制剂

酶制剂不仅可以补充动物内源酶的不足,还能通过破坏植酸磷的化学结构,提高饲粮中磷的利用效率,增强畜禽对营养物质的消化吸收能力[51]。Swift等[52]研究发现,内溶酶PlyCP10和PlyCP41对75株产气荚膜梭菌(分离自家禽、猪和牛)均有溶解活性,表明这2种酶具有良好的NE治疗潜力。Liu等[53]将木聚糖酶加入到小麦型肉鸡基础饲粮中,降低了产气荚膜梭菌感染肉鸡的血浆内毒素水平,改善了肠道通透性和上皮细胞凋亡状态,减轻了由产气荚膜梭菌引起的肠黏膜屏障损伤。Zhang等[54]研究表明,溶菌酶不仅能杀灭病原菌,且能抑制产气荚膜梭菌α毒素的产生。亦有研究报道,外源性溶菌酶可以减少产气荚膜梭菌的定植,改善肠道屏障功能和肠道完整性,进而降低NE肉鸡的死亡率[55]。此外,酶制剂在非常规肉鸡饲粮中抵抗NE产生的负面影响方面可发挥重要作用。研究指出,在肉仔鸡小麦型基础饲粮中,添加纤维降解酶可改善NE引起的生长性能损失[56]。在肉仔鸡饲粮中添加高水平的干酒糟及其可溶物(DDGS)会增加对NE的易感性,而添加蛋白酶和木聚糖酶可维持饲喂DDGS肉鸡的采食量和日增重,降低NE的发生[57]。然而,酶制剂在使用中也存在一些问题需进一步解析,如不同的酶制剂使用时是否会产生一些不良的或未知的酶解产物,针对不同的酶制剂需开发配套的酶制剂生产技术和饲料配制工艺技术,不同生理状态下的酶制剂精准饲喂剂量和剂量预测模型的建立等。

2.5 植物提取物

植物提取物包括从植物中得到的酸、甙、萜类、多糖、多酚、黄酮和生物碱等[58],表现出不同程度的抗氧化和抗菌效果,可调节肠道菌群结构,提高肠道屏障功能[59-60]。例如,植物精油能够通过增强肠道上皮屏障的防御力和机体免疫力来改善畜禽健康状态,展现出抗菌、抗氧化和抗炎在内的多种功能[61-62]。Lee等[63]的研究结果显示,相较于抗生素,肉桂醛对产气荚膜梭菌有更强的生长抑制作用。Du等[64]在体外精油抗菌活性的研究中发现,百里香酚和香芹酚是植物精油中含有酚类结构成分的物质,可有效减轻产气荚膜梭菌诱导的肠道病变。因此,植物提取物被视为畜禽饲粮中理想的促生长添加剂[65]。植物提取物对肠道炎症的治疗作用已在动物模型中得到验证,其对肠道炎症的治疗靶点通常包括NF-κB通路、肠道菌群等多种肠道屏障功能[66-67]。研究指出,鞣酸可通过调节空肠炎症信号通路TLR/NF-κB和Janus激酶3(JAK3)/信号转导及转录激活因子6(STAT6),缓解空肠氧化应激,平衡盲肠菌群,抑制肠道屏障损伤,预防全身炎症反应,提高营养物质吸收能力,改善肉仔鸡亚临床型NE造成的不良影响,最终保护和提高肉仔鸡的生长性能[68]。Li等[69]研究发现,黄羽肉鸡感染产气荚膜梭菌后,在饲粮中添加黄芩和金银花提取物(绿原酸2.2 mg/g、黄芩苷22 mg/g)可以降低肠道通透性,恢复肠道形态,并通过Toll样受体2(TLR2)/NF-κB信号通路增加肠道内紧密连接蛋白的水平,从而保护肠道免受产气荚膜梭菌的侵染,维持肠道菌群稳态。Elizondo等[70]研究发现,单宁有较强的抗菌能力,可以抑制产气荚膜梭菌分泌的α毒素和ε毒素的活性,进而降低其对畜禽肠道造成的不利影响。尽管植物提取物的潜力已被部分研究证实,但其仍缺乏系统的临床研究,且不同类型植物提取物的抗病机制和靶标仍需深入解析,高效、稳定、低成本的提取工艺有待进一步开发,不同植物提取物的产业化和使用标准也有待建立。

2.6 噬菌体

噬菌体是一种细菌病毒,能使易感细菌培养物完全溶解,广泛存在于各种环境中,包括水、食品、废水、动物和人类废弃物等[71]。大多数噬菌体对宿主细胞表面受体[如受体结合蛋白(RBPs)或脂多糖(LPS)]具有高度特异性[72]。温和噬菌体有溶菌性周期和溶原性周期,因其能够在溶菌性周期中导致细菌裂解并产生新的成熟噬菌体而被用于噬菌体疗法。大部分噬菌体能在胃环境中生存,因此噬菌体疗法的给药方式可以通过口服或者注射。在注射给药时,浓度越高,其抑菌效果越显著[73]。Zimmer等[74]对产气荚膜梭菌噬菌体φ3626的细胞壁裂解系统的研究表明,φ3626双裂解系统的murein水解酶可以在标准条件下裂解所有48种测试的产气荚膜梭菌菌株,而属于其他属的其他梭菌和细菌通常不受影响。这种对产气荚膜梭菌的高度特异性活性可能有助于食品、饲料和复杂微生物群落中新型生物防治措施的开发。Miller等[75]的研究显示,多价噬菌体混合物INF-401在控制产气荚膜梭菌引起的NE方面的疗效优于单一噬菌体,通过饮用水或饲粮将INT-401输送给肉鸡可能是控制产气荚膜梭菌引起的NE的有效手段,并可能提高临床型或亚临床型NE家禽的增重和饲料转化率。Swift等[76]设计合成了1个大肠杆菌密码子优化基因,该基因将嗜热噬菌体φGVE2内溶素的N-乙酰壁酰-L-丙氨酸酰胺酶结构域与产气荚膜梭菌特异性噬菌体φCP26F内溶素的细胞壁结合结构域(CWB)融合,产生的蛋白质PlyGVE2CpCWB在液体和固体培养物中可有效裂解产气荚膜梭菌。Ha等[77]从鸡粪便中分离并鉴定了产气荚膜梭菌特异性强噬菌体CPS2,并从中分离出高度耐热且对产气荚膜梭菌有高裂解作用的内溶素LysCPS2。Nariya等[78]在A型产气荚膜梭菌的外体噬菌体phiSM101中发现一种有效的细胞壁裂解酶Psm-his,其可控制产气荚膜梭菌的生长。综上可知,噬菌体在控制产气荚膜梭菌引起的NE过程中表现出了潜在的特异性控制作用。但是,噬菌体不耐高温、成本高、市场监管无标准等问题,成为了噬菌体产业化应用的关键和挑战。

3 小结与展望

近年来,由于细菌耐药性、抗生素残留和环境污染等问题,全球范围内对饲料中兽用抗菌类药物的使用进行了限制,导致了NE的发生呈现出上升的趋势。合适的营养调控技术可调控动物的免疫反应和抗病力,调节肠道微生物平衡和屏障功能,改变细胞生长状态和修复受损细胞。已有的营养调控措施被证明能治疗或者缓解家禽NE的发生,但是仍存在诸多问题需要进一步探究,如不同的功能性营养成分的关键抗病调节靶点需要解析,不同营养素的高效利用技术和标准有待开发,不同的营养素之间是否存在组合效应及其组合优化亟待明确等。因此,探索科学的营养素防治策略和抗病营养机制,可为家禽NE的防治和畜牧业高质量生产提供重要参考。
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